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RESEARCH IN SOCIAL CARE: GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCHERS

These Guidelines have been prepared to help those planning, carrying out or managing research in the field of social care. They are designed to apply to researchers working in both adults' and children's services. Those whose research involves the NHS as well as social care, might also find it useful to look at the Guidelines for doing a research project in the health services, produced by RDDirect. 

Social care research is carried out by a great variety of different people, over a great variety of timescales. Your project may be going to take three months or three years. You may be a social care professional researching the service which you and your colleagues provide; you may be a full time researcher engaged in an on-going programme of work; you may be one of a group of service users finding out what people like you think about the care you receive; or you may be a student in a university or college. Whoever you are, we hope you will find the Guidelines useful and we welcome your comments and suggestions for improvements.

1.   TURN YOUR IDEA INTO A RESEARCH PLAN

First stages

Where do you start?  Think about answers to the following questions.

• What is the general topic or area of interest?
• What is your research question or hypothesis?
• Why does this topic interest you?
• Why is it important?
• What methods are you planning to use in the course of the research?
• How will the users of the service, or the professionals who staff it, benefit from the research?

Discuss your ideas with others

Prepare a brief outline of your answers to the questions above, and discuss your outline with the person who will be your main adviser for the research?  This may be:

• The research officer or research lead in your council
• A university-based supervisor or director of a research unit
• Your line manager

Other sources of help at this stage might be:

• There may be a research section in your local council
• The Social Services Research Group (SSRG) organises events and courses at which you will meet other researchers
• Research in Practice has links for research on services for children and families and for research on services for adults
• The Association of Directors of Adult Social Services (ADASS) represents directors of adult social services and organises an annual research conference
• RDDirect is a national advice service for researchers
• RDLearning is a database of training courses for researchers in health and social care, including a special edition for postgraduate training and short courses, workshops and conferences.
• National Council for Voluntary Organisations (NCVO) is in contact with many voluntary and community organisations
• NHS Research Design Service support high quality and multidisciplinary research in health and social care; there will probably be one in your region.

User Involvement  

Involve service users at all stages of the research process (See User Involvement section) especially:

• Setting the research agenda (See Section 2 of this flowchart)
• Developing the proposal (See Section 3 of this flowchart)
• During the conduct of the project
• Disseminating results (See Section 9 of this flowchart)

Other issues to consider

• Involving service users and carers in planning the research.  Advice on this can be found at INVOLVE
• Collaborating with more experienced researchers: Research in Practice holds a Register of Researchers working in the area of children's services
• Think about sources of funding for your research (see section 5).  It is important to consider funding at an early stage because funders differ in the amounts of money they have available, the types of research they are prepared to fund and the outputs which they expect from the study
• Think about a sponsor for your research (see section 4)
• You may find it useful to start a ‘Research Diary’ where you jot down ideas and questions, note useful contacts and web sites, and generally track the way your plans change as the project proceeds

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RESEARCH IN SOCIAL CARE: GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCHERS

2.   REVIEW THE LITERATURE

It is essential that existing sources of evidence are considered carefully before undertaking new research.  It is a waste of time and resources to carry out research which duplicates other work or re-invents the wheel.

Setting the research agenda - Where do I start?

• Discuss how to start with your research adviser or supervisor
• Work out a search strategy and decide on your plan of action
• Start reading and searching the internet
• Consult the Research Register for Social Care: all social care research carried out in the UK should be registered with this database
• Consult Social Care Online which is the UK 's most extensive database of social care information
• Look at Safari, the Open University Guide to the information world
• The University of Plymouth has a guide to reviewing the literature
• Research in Practice has a guide to searching the literature on research on children and services for children
• EMIE at NFER has a useful glossary if you get stuck with the acronyms

Libraries

Libraries are key sources of information and help.  Access to a good library will be crucial, so try to ensure that you have access to an academic library.  Some social services departments have their own libraries and may be able to get books and journals for you and give you access to online sources of information.

• Social Care Online has a guide to libraries  and social care journals
• The Social Care Institute for Excellence (SCIE) produces a variety of publications and research briefings 
• Local Health libraries can be found via Health Library & Information Services Directory (HLISD).

General indexes to the social science literature

You may need passwords for the following. 

• Ageinfo is an information service about old age and ageing provided by the Centre for Policy on Ageing (CPA)
• Childdata gives you access to databases produced by the National Children's Bureau (NCB)
• IBSS is an international bibliography of the social sciences based at the London School of Economics
• King's Fund has a library and information service which covers both health and social care 
• PsychINFO is a major bibliographic database for psychology
• Scopus indexes 14,000 journals from the natural and social sciences subject areas
• The Social Policy Digest reports recent policy developments and research reports from many areas of welfare

Systematic reviews

These provide rigorous reviews of the existing literature on particular topics.  You may find it useful to consult an existing review or you may be planning to carry one out yourself.

• The Social Care Institute for Excellence has a guide on the Conduct of Systematic Research Reviews for SCIE Knowledge Reviews
• The NHS Centre for Reviews and Dissemination at the University of York has produced a guide on systematic reviews

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RESEARCH IN SOCIAL CARE: GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCHERS

3.   DESIGN THE STUDY AND DEVELOP THE METHODS

Involving service users

Social care is committed to involving service users and their carers wherever possible in the design, conduct, analysis and reporting of research. 

• Contact INVOLVE on ideas about how to do this
• SCIE has produced a guide to involving service users and carers in systematic reviews
• Engage with users whilst designing your study to ensure it works well in the real world. Engagement should:
  • Be as early as possible in the process
  • Could be in the form of a small focus group, users on your study design team or speaking to a relevant service user support or other group 

Choosing the methods

What are the most appropriate methods to use in your study?  The methods you choose should reflect the questions you are asking, but you will also be constrained by what is practical, given the time and resources available.  Useful books include:

Becker, S. and Bryman, A. (2004) Understanding Research for Social Policy and Practice, Edward Elgar
Bryman, A. (2004) Social Research Methods, Oxford University Press.
Burton, D (2000) Research Training for Social Scientists, Sage
May, T. (1997) Social Research: Issues, Methods and Process, Open University
Ruane, J. (2005). Essentials of Research Methods. Oxford. Blackwell.

Many studies involve a mix of methods.  For example, a quantitative study can provide information about a great many people, but you may need some qualitative interviews to tell you what the information means.  Researchers should try to be objective, but spending time as a participant observer will help you to understand the experience of the subjects of your research.

The NIHR Research Design Service West Midlands provides an overview of mixed methods research design and review. There are many textbooks on social research methods and your local university will probably run a course social science methods.

• Social Research Update at the University of Surrey produces guides to research techniques
• The Social Research Association provides a comprehensive programme of training days
• Courses in Applied Social Surveys (CASS) is based at the University of Southampton
• The Research Methods Knowledge Base has some useful sections on social science methods

Qualitative and quantitative research methods

Which method is most appropriate for your research project?  The methods most commonly used in social care research include:

• Face to face interviews with a structured or semi-structured questionnaire
• Self-completion questionnaires
• Postal questionnaires
• Participant observation
• Collecting life histories
• Focus groups
• Experimental methods, such as randomised controlled trials
• Documentary research

In quantitative research the data collected takes the form of measurements or facts which can be statistically analysed.  Qualitative research generally involves fewer participants, but finds our more about each one, exploring their attitudes and experiences, as well as collecting facts about them.  Some of the most convincing studies use a mix of methods, and you can find a guide to different research methodologies at RDInfo. 

Collaboration

You may be working with other researchers, or with practitioners or service users.  Many funding bodies ask researchers to set up collaborative links with those who will use the results of the study.  Here is a guide to collaborative research.

Statistical issues

Are you familiar with the statistics you may need to use?  If not, consider enrolling on a suitable course.  You should be able to find one with the help of your local university or RDLearning.

• A statistical package will be necessary to help you analyse your data.  The most commonly used one is the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)
• A guide to statistical analysis in health research is provided at St George’s Hospital

Questionnaire design

Designing a questionnaire can take some time.  As well as discussing drafts with your research adviser, you should discuss the questions with service users and with people who work in the organisation where the survey will take place.  You should also pilot the questionnaire, and revise it if necessary, before you begin to do the interviews.

• A guide to designing a questionnaire is available at the University of Leeds
• Here is an American tutorial on designing surveys and questionnaires
• Bristol On-line questionnaire design

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RESEARCH IN SOCIAL CARE: GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCHERS

4   WRITE YOUR RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A proposal will be essential, not just to obtain funding or approval for the study, but to inform all those who will be involved about what is planned.  Your proposal will have to be discussed in draft with:

• Your research adviser or supervisor
• Managers and other staff in the service where the study will take place
• Service users and their carers

Headings to include in your proposal

No two proposals are the same, but here are some sub-headings which you might use in your proposal:

• Title
• Abstract or summary
• Background or rationale for the project
• Aims/objectives
• Methods and data analysis
• Expected contribution of the study
• Ethical issues
• Staffing
• Timetable for the study
• Resources and costs (see section 5)
• Dissemination and publication

Getting advice about your proposal

There are a number of sources of advice and help for those preparing a research proposal.  These include:

• A guide on how to write a research proposal from Birmingham City University
• Some of the bodies which fund research give advice on their web sites about how they expect the proposal to be prepared.  For example, the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) expects applicants to fill in an on-line form

Research governance issues

Since the development of the DH Research Governance Framework for Health and Social Care, proposals for research in health and social care have to fulfil certain requirements before the work can begin.  Depending on the scope and scale of the proposed study, and its likely level of risk, these requirements are likely to include:

• Obtaining ethical approval for the study (see section 6)
• Ensuring that the proposal has been subject to peer review
• Identifying a sponsor for the study

There are a number of sources of guidance. 

• Guidance on the RGF for social care researchers is set out in the DH Implementation Plan for Social Care 
• A Risk Assessment Tool for assessing the level of risk in a particular study has been developed jointly by the SSRG, DH and ADSS
• Guidance for those managing research in councils with social services responsibilities is set out in the SSRG Resource Pack
• Guidance for those carrying out research which involves NHS patients or staff is available from the National Research Ethics Service
• Research in universities is likely to be approved under the ESRC Research Ethics Framework

Peer review

Under the Research Governance Framework every social care research proposal should be subjected to independent peer review by experts in the relevant fields who are able to offer advice on its quality and suitability.  Arrangements for peer review must be commensurate with the scale of the research.

• When research is funded by a grant awarding body it will have been subjected to peer review as part of the process of approving the project
• For student research projects the university supervisor will normally provide an adequate level of peer review
• Research taking place within local authorities without external funding could go for peer review to the research officer or research lead

Identifying a sponsor

The Research Governance Framework for Health and Social Care makes it clear that no research can begin until a sponsor accepts responsibility for the project.  The word ‘sponsor’ describes a set of functions for which an organisation agrees to take responsibility.  The functions are set out in the Implementation Plan for Social Care.  In the case of social care the sponsor is likely to be one of the following:

• The local authority or other organisation where the research is taking place
• The organisation which employs the researchers
• The funding body, in the case of the Department of Health

RDInfo

RESEARCH PROCESS FLOW CHART FOR SOCIAL CARE

5   FIND SOME FUNDING

You may be doing your study within existing resources, but research is an expensive activity, requiring considerable expertise, time and skill. 

Costs for which you may seek funding

These are the sorts of items for which you may seek funding:

• Salaries of researchers, interviewers and support staff, including their pensions and national insurance
• Equipment, such as computers, tape recorders and so on
• Travel and subsistence
• Payments to participants
• Office costs such as stationery, photocopying, phone, postage
• Access to libraries and the internet
• Preparation and dissemination of reports

Where to look for funding

Sources of funding for social care research are few compared with health research and the sums available are much smaller, as work carried out at SCIE has shown.  The following organisations are significant funders of social care research.

• Department for Education
• Department of Health (DH)
• Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC )
• Joseph Rowntree Foundation (JRF)
• Leverhulme Trust
• Nuffield Foundation

There are several sources of information and advice on funding for social care research.

• RDFunding is a database of organisations which fund health and social care research
• The General Social Care Council provides bursaries to social work students

Paying participants

If you are involving service users or their relatives in your research you should think about whether they should be paid.  This may take the form of paying expenses, giving a standard fee or making some other acknowledgement of their contribution.  There can be difficulties in paying service users to be involved in research, especially for those receiving state benefits.

• More guidance is published by INVOLVE.

t is important to cost for the involvement of service users in development and management of the study, as well as disseminating results to them after it has finished.

Salary scales

Will you need to pay for other assistance on the project?  If so, you will need to know about salary scales, and you must not forget to add in the correct amounts for national insurance and pension contributions. 

• Health and social care professionals
• University based researchers
• Support and administrative staff

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RESEARCH IN SOCIAL CARE: GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCHERS

6   OBTAIN ETHICAL AND LOCAL AUTHORITY APPROVAL

All those involved in research must be aware of their legal and ethical duties. 

Codes of ethics

Codes of Ethics for social researchers have been produced by the:

• British Sociological Association
• British Psychological Society
• Social Research Association

An article in the British Journal of Social Work discusses a code of ethics for social care research

Research Governance Framework

Under the Research Governance Framework (RGF) it is the responsibility of the researcher/chief investigator to get ethical approval for the study.  This may be obtained from a Higher Education Institution (HEI), from an NHS Research Ethics Committee (REC), or from a social care REC at local or regional level; plans are currently being discussed for a central Social Care REC. 

Obtaining ethical and other approvals for your study depends on where your study will take place and which service users or staff will be involved.  Those working in Higher Education Institutions may be able to get ethical approval from the university’s ethical committee.  The Research Ethics Framework applies to all HEIs which receive grants from the ESRC. 

National Social Care Research Ethics Committee (SCREC)

The Social Care Research Ethics Committee reviews adult Social Care research study proposals from researchers based in England. Applications for approval can be made via the Integrated Research Application System (IRAS) and choosing the Social Care REC option ensures the appropriate forms are generated.

Research on social care for adults

Before the research can take place approval will have to be granted by:

• the relevant department(s) within the local authority
• the relevant ethical committee.  Guidance about systems for ethics approval in social care is available in the RGF Resource Pack
• the ADASS, if the research involves more than one local authority

Research on children and families

Before the research can take place approval will have to be granted by:

• the relevant department(s) within the local authority
• an appropriate ethical committee.  For those working in an HEI this is likely to be the university’s in-house system.  Researchers based within a local authority may be able to use a REC at local or regional level

Research involving health services

Ethics review in the NHS is managed by the National Research Ethics Service, which is located within the National Patient Safety Agency. 

The National Research Ethics Service (NRES):

• Coordinates the development of operational systems for local and multi-centre Research Ethics Committees (RECs) on behalf of the NHS
• Maintains an overview of the operation of RECs
• Develops and manages a national training programme for REC members and administrators
• Develops, implements and maintains operating procedures and standards for RECs which will be consistent across the UK

The NRES provides guidance for researchers on:

• The definition of research in this context
• Which studies need ethical approval?
• Guidance for applicants

Applications for NHS REC approval are made via Integrated Research Application System (IRAS).
Note that in the NHS clinical audit and service evaluation do not have to go for ethical approval, but that the same distinction may not apply in social care.

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RESEARCH IN SOCIAL CARE: GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCHERS

7   COLLECT AND COLLATE THE DATA

In social care research, collecting and collating the data can take many different forms.  In addition different disciplines in the social sciences may take rather different approaches to answering the same question. 

Advice on collecting and collating data

You can get advice about what might be involved from one of the many books on social research or from the sources listed in section 3.  Useful books include:

Becker, S. and Bryman, A. (2004) Understanding Research for Social Policy and Practice, Edward Elgar
Bryman, A. (2004) Social Research Methods, Oxford University Press.
Burton, D (2000) Research Training for Social Scientists, Sage
May, T. (1997) Social Research: Issues, Methods and Process, Open University
Ruane, J. (2005) Essentials of Research Methods. Oxford. Blackwell.

Issues to consider

• Beware of biases – yours and/or bias in other researchers
• Seek advice – consider having an Advisory Group for the project
• Set up clear procedures for managing the data
• Set up and keep to a timetable for the study
• Check back to your research questions to be sure that your data analysis will produce some answers to those questions
• Be scrupulous in your approach to the data, even if it is not coming up with the answers you wanted or expected

Responsibilities of researchers

Researchers bear day-to-day responsibility for the research in terms of:

• Ensuring that the research follows the proposal, or that there are good reasons for any changes
• Ensuring that the dignity, rights and well being of the participant is respected: if the subject is a sensitive one you may want to be able to give them information about sources of support
• Protecting the integrity and confidentiality of all records and data generated by the research
• Ensuring the health and safety of anyone involved in the research, including the researchers: anyone going out to do an interview should carry a mobile phone and tell someone where they will be going
• Ensuring financial probity and good financial management
• Reporting any failures in these respects, or any adverse event, to the appropriate person
• Keeping the funder and sponsor of the study informed about progress
• Keeping all participants and service users informed about progress
• Completing the study and disseminating the findings

Data protection and confidentiality

Data collected in the course of research must be retained for an appropriate period to allow further analysis by the original or other research teams. 

• The Data Protection Act 1998 stipulates that the appropriate use and protection of data provided by participants is paramount in research.  A guide to the Act for researchers has been produced by the University of York
• When collecting and storing data on research participants the following should be considered:
• The identities of individuals should be disguised by use of codes
• The list which links individuals to codes should be kept securely and apart from the data
• Any identifying details should be anonymised in any publically available document
• Access to data which may be identifiable should be limited to the research team
• Be aware of the role of the Caldicott Guardians in protecting information about service users and NHS patients

Further information about social care information governance has been prepared by the Department of Health and by the The Care Quality Commission

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RESEARCH IN SOCIAL CARE: GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCHERS

8   ANALYSE THE DATA AND INTERPRET THE FINDINGS

There are many different ways of analysing the data coming from social care research, but a distinction is often made between qualitative and quantitative data.

The analysis of qualitative data

• Qualitative data analysis collates and summarises the mass of information generated by interviews or observation
• It involves researchers seeking relationships between different themes that have been identified for the research and creating patterns out of the data
• The behaviour, experiences and attitudes of respondents may be related to their biographical characteristics, such as age, sex, income level and so on
• Implications for policy or practice may be derived from the data
• Theory may be tested or developed
• Although methods of analysis vary greatly, the following steps are typical:

• Tape recorded interview material is transcribed
• Anonymising of data
• Familiarisation with the data through repeated reading
• Organising of the data for easy examination, for example, by setting key facts or comments out on a spread sheet or framework
• Use of a specialist computer programme such as NVivo or NUD*IST
• Identification of themes related to the original research question
• Development of provisional categories
• Exploration of relationships between categories
• Refinement of themes and categories
• Choice of examples to illustrate themes and categories
• Comparison of new data with original research questions

The analysis of quantitative data

• Quantitative data analysis collates and summarises the mass of information generated by interviews and other forms of data collection
• In the initial analysis the characteristics of the data may be described and explored by using cross tabulations, creating graphs and charts, and calculating means and standard deviations
• Further analyses will build on these initial findings, seeking patterns and relationships in the data by comparing means, exploring correlations, and performing multiple regressions or analyses of variance
• Advanced modelling techniques may be used to build sophisticated explanations of how the data addresses the original questions
• Although methods may vary greatly, the following steps are typical:

• Identifying a data entry and analysis programme eg SPSS
• Coding the data and reviewing it for completeness
• Entering the data and checking
• Carrying out simple exploratory analyses
• Reviewing the results
• Performing more sophisticated analyses as appropriate
• Development of theory
• Comparison of new data with original research questions

Using existing data

There are many sources of data already in existence which could be used to explore social and health care issues.  Many of these data sets contain information from thousands of people, are based on nation-wide random samples and are processed in an extremely professional way.  They thus offer data in quality and quantity which far surpasses anything which can be obtained in the average project.  The two points to consider are whether a particular data set contains the information that is required and whether the researcher has the skills to manage the analysis.

Existing data sets can be obtained from the ESRC Data Archive at the University of Essex.  For example:

• The English Longitudinal Survey of Ageing (ELSA) collects data about 12,000 people over 50 and about how their health, social and economic circumstances change over time
• The General Household Survey contains data from nearly 13,000 households about their use of social and health services and quality of life
• The Millennium Cohort Study collects longitudinal evidence about 19,000 children born in 2000 and about their birth and early years, their family circumstances and their physical, emotional and social development
• The National Child Development Study follows the lives of 17,000 people who were born in 1958; it contains information about health and social care, family relationships, and other topics

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RESEARCH IN SOCIAL CARE: GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCHERS

9. REPORT ON THE STUDY AND DISSEMINATE THE FINDINGS

Writing up is often a continuous process, which can begin while the data is being collected and analysed: for example, it is often best to write about the methods of the study while the difficulties which were encountered are still fresh in the mind.  There is also likely to be an iterative process by which the writing triggers off further questions and so further analyses, which lead to more writing.  A guide to writing up research can be found at the RDDirect website .

Planning your dissemination

From an early stage the researcher should think about the following questions, which will shape the strategy for writing up and dissemination:

• Who should know about the results of this research?
• How can I ensure that the results will reach those people?
• What medium would be best to ensure that the results are accessible?

Ideas about using research to make change happen can be found at the SWAP website (Unfortunately this website will not be updated after 2005) and suggestions for using research from a variety of different sources can be found at the SCIE website. 

Making an impact on practice

For many researchers it is important that their hard work contributes to the development of better services.  There are various sources of ideas about how this can be done.

• Ideas about evidence-based practice have been developed by SWAP (Not updated after 2005)
• The Joint Universities Council is concerned with Promoting social work and social policy research

Rules for writing up

How you write up will, to some extent, depend on where the piece is to be published or made available.  But there are some rules which apply in most cases.

• Plan your writing in advance, thinking carefully about your key messages
• Have a summary or an abstract at the beginning for busy people
• Write as clearly and as interestingly as you can
• Present honestly the data which supports your findings
• Don’t make mistakes in spelling, grammar or punctuation
• Tables, charts and other visual material are welcomed by readers
• Conclude by summing up what your study has contributed
• List recommendations for policy and practice, if appropriate
• Give references to other sources, using the Harvard style of referencing

A guide to effective writing has been produced at Loughborough University.

Where to publish

The results of research may be disseminated in the form of:

• A research report, which is a carefully structured piece which sets out clearly the background to the study, its aims and methods, its findings and their implications for policy, practice and the growth of knowledge.  It is likely to be written for a particular audience, such as service users, managers in social care, professional colleagues or multi disciplinary teams
• A published article, which is designed to convey new knowledge or ideas to the readers of that journal.  In the more academic journals, articles will be sent to referees to be peer reviewed.  Researchers in social care have a wealth of journals to chose from, such as,

• Community Care, which is read by the largest number of readers in social care (and which pays for articles, but is not peer reviewed)
• Ageing and Society, which covers all aspects of ageing and services for elderly people
• Adoption and Fostering, which discusses new developments in child care practice and research
• British Journal of Learning Disabilities which publishes articles on a wide range of debates in research, policy and practice
• British Journal of Social Work, which covers every aspect of social work and is read by both academics and practitioners
• Child and Family Social Work which publishes articles on research , theory, policy and practice on social work with children
• Research, Policy and Planning, which is the journal of the Social Services Research Group

• A book either for an academic or professional audience, or for both
• Submit your research details to the Research Register for Social Care

Other ideas on dissemination

Publishing is not the only way to make your work known.  Other possibilities are:

• A presentation at an appropriate conference.  Most professional bodies and academic disciplines have regular conferences and seminars at which research results are presented.  A useful guide to creating an effective PowerPoint presentation has been produced by Thomas Saylor. 
• Working with the media to create a television or radio programme, or simply responding to queries from the media
• Creating a training programme, perhaps in association with a college or university, or a professional body
• Electronic versions of the findings, for example, in the form of a DVD, a web page, an on-line discussion group, or your own blog. 

Your duty to inform

Those who do research have a duty to tell people what they have discovered and to make clear what the findings mean for the development of policy and practice.  Points to bear in mind are:

• Social care research is carried out for the benefit of service users, care professionals, the public in general and for the advance of academic knowledge and understanding
• There should be free access to information, both about the research being conducted and about the findings of the research once these have been subjected to appropriate scientific review through the accepted scientific and professional channels. Submit the details to the Research Register for Social Care
• Findings must be made available to those who took part in the research
• Results must also be made available to anyone who could benefit

Research offers the possibility of contributing to improvements in the lives of the people who use, and work in, the social care services.  As researchers we have a duty to do as much as we can to ensure that our work has a beneficial impact.